Speech Act Theory and Speech Eve

Speech Act Theory and Speech Events

Malinowski claims that the central character of languages is as ‘a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection’. This view emphasises the role of

language in ‘practical action’ and as a ‘link in concerted human activity, as a piece of human behaviour’. (Ogden&Richards,1949)

Wittgenstein also came to think of language not primarily as a system of representation but as a vehicle for all sorts of social activity. 'Don't ask for the

meaning', he admonished, 'ask for the use'.

The philosopher J.L. Austin (1911-1960) claims that many utterances (things people say) are equivalent to actions. Austin's attention was first attracted to

what he called 'explicit performative utterances', in which one uses sentences like 'I nominate ...', 'You're fired', 'The meeting is adjourned', and 'You

are hereby sentenced ...', “I name this ship” or “I now pronounce you man and wife” to perform acts of the very sort named by the verb, such as

nominating, firing, adjourning, or sentencing. These utterances create a new social or psychological reality. Austin identifies three distinct levels of

action beyond the act of utterance itself.

locution what we say

illocution what we intend to accomplish by saying it

perlocution what we actually accomplish by saying it

“The bar will be closed in five minutes”

The theory of speech acts aims to do justice to the fact that even though words (phrases, sentences) encode information, people do more things with

words than convey information and that when people do convey information, they often convey more than their words encode. Although the focus

of speech act theory has been on utterances, especially those made in conversational and other face-to-face situations, the phrase 'speech act' should

e taken as a generic term for any sort of language use, oral or otherwise. Speech acts, whatever the medium of their performance, fall under the

broad category of intentional action, with which they share certain general features

Communicative success is achieved if the speaker chooses his words in such a way that the hearer will, under the circumstances of utterance,

recognize his communicative intention. So, for example, if you spill some beer on someone and say 'Oops' in the right way, your utterance

will be taken as an apology for what you did

Constatives: affirming, alleging, announcing, answering, attributing, claiming, classifying, concurring, confirming, conjecturing, denying,

disagreeing, disclosing, disputing, identifying, informing, insisting, predicting, ranking, reporting, stating, stipulating

Directives: here the speaker tries to make the hearer do something, with such words as: asking, begging, challenging, commanding, daring, inviting,

insist, request. advising, admonishing, asking, begging, dismissing, excusing, forbidding, instructing, ordering, permitting, requesting, requiring,

suggesting, urging, warning

Commissives: here the speaker commits himself (or herself) to a (future) course of action, with verbs such as: guaranteeing, pledging, promising, swearing,

vowing, undertaking, warranting, agreeing, guaranteeing, inviting, offering, promising, swearing, volunteering

Acknowledgments: apologizing, condoling, congratulating, greeting, thanking, accepting (acknowledging an acknowledgment) (Bach and Harnish)

Representatives: here the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using such verbs as: affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report.

Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs, using such verbs as: apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank,

welcome.

Declarations the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object or situation, solely by making the utterance: I now pronounce you man and wife,

I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead, I name this ship...

“Words without thoughts never to Heaven go”. (Shakespeare in Hamlet)

Here are some examples from different spheres of human activity, where performatives are found at work. These are loose categories, and

many performatives belong to more than one of them

Universities and Schools: conferring of degrees, rusticating or excluding students.

The Church/Mosque: baptizing, confirming and marrying, exorcism, commination (cursing) and excommunication, praying.

Governance and civic life: crowning of monarchs, dissolution of Parliament, passing legislation, awarding honours, ennobling or decorating.

The Law: enacting or enforcing of various judgements, passing sentence, swearing oaths and plighting one's troth.

The Armed Services: signing on, giving an order to attack, retreat or open fire.

Sport: cautioning or sending off players, giving players out, appealing for a dismissal or declaring (closing an innings) in cricket.

Business: hiring and firing, establishing a verbal contract, naming a ship.

Gaming: placing a bet, raising the stakes in poker.

Speech Events

speech events: ‘activities, or aspects of activities, that are directly governed by the rules or norms of the use of speech

Classification of Complex Speech Events

Politics: summit, visit, coronation, etc.

Business: negotiations, board meeting, presentation, job interview, etc.

Law: trial, cross-examination, etc.

Education: exam, seminar, lecture, etc.

Mass Media: interview, chat-show, etc.

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