Next4.
II. METHODOLOGY
Learning a second language or a foreign language has been a need in the developing world. People have started to think that learning a foreign language is a necessity for many reasons, such as for their job, for their future, for higher living standarts, for communication, for being aware of what's happening outside their home-country while some other people have been obliged to acquire a second
language due to their migration from one country to another for any reason.
Since this conciousness and movements from one place to another appeared,
the researches on how language can be taught most effectively and learnt most
easily by the learners have started to take place.
The term 'methodology' refers to the way a language is taught and the way
it's learnt. Through-out the years
many different approaches concerning the language teaching/ learning methods
have appeared. Some of those
approaches and methods are (Richards and Rodgers, Cambridge University Press)
·
Grammar
Translation Method:
Principles:
1. The goal is to learn a
language to read its literature.
2. One of the purpose of
learning a language is to be able to translate
each one into the other.
3. Reading and writing are
primary skills.
4. Grammar is taught
deductively.
5. Language learning
develops mental process.
6. Accuracy is emphasized.
7. Memorization is
effective.
Approach:
Structural
Syllabus:
Structural
TR/LR:
Traditional teacher is authority.
Techniques:
1. Translation of a literary
passage.
2. Reading comprehension
questions.
3. Memorization.
4. Analyzing the structure.
5. Deductive application of
rule.
6. Cognates.
·
Direct
Method:
Principles:
1. The purpose of language
learning is communication.
2. Teaching language is as
important as teaching culture.
3. Grammar is taught
deductively.
4. Pronounciation should be
worked on.
5. Language is primarily
speech.
6. The native language
should not be used.
7. Direct association
between forms and meaning in the target language
by mean of demonstration not explanation or translation.
Approach:
European Structuralism, Associationism
Syllabus:
Structural
TR/LR:
Teacher is demonstrator. Teacher
centered.
Techniques:
1. Communication.
2. Question and answer.
3. Narration.
4. Conversation practice.
5. Building sentences.
6. Paraphrazing.
·
Audio
Lingual Method:
Principles:
1. Language is a set of
habits and language learning is a habit
formation.
2. Speech has a priorty.
3. New points are learned
inductively.
4. Language forms occur most
naturaly within a context.
5. Errors should be
prevented as they lead to bad habit formation.
6. Positive reinforcements
helps to develop correct habits.
7. New vocabulary and
structures are presented through dialogs.
Approach:
American Structuralism, Behaviorism
Syllabus:
Situational, Structural
TR/LR:
Teacher is model, organizer. Learner
is imitator.
Techniques:
1. Dialog memorization.
2. Drills such as chain,
backward build up, repetition, single-slot
substition, transformation, integration.
·
Communicative
Approach:
Principles:
1. The focus is on real
language use.
2. The goal is becoming
communicatively competent.
3. Learning to use language
forms appropriately is an important part of
communicative competence.
4. Students have an
opportunity to express their individuality and
integrate the foreign language with their personality.
5. Target language is a
vehicle for communication not just an object to
be studied.
Approach:
Communicative Competence, Generativism
Syllabus:
Functional, Situational, Task-based
TR/LR:
Teacher is organizer, designer, initiator.
Learner is user, communicator.
Techniques:
1. Authenitc materials.
2. Scrambled sentences.
3. Language games.
4. Picture strip story.
5. Role play.
6. Debates.
7. Completing a map.
8. Drawing a picture with
instructions.
·
The
Silent Way:
Principles:
1. Learning involves
transfering what one knows to new context.
2. Pronounciation is worked
on from the beginning.
3. Students are encouraged
to discover the language and they are lead
for creativity.
4. Individuality of learning
is emphasized.
Approach:
Cognitive Psychology, Humanism
Syllabus:
Structural
TR/LR:
Teacher is silent, helper. Learner-centered. Learner is discoverer,
creator.
Techniques:
1. Using charts (sound,
colour, fidel, word). Rods, sticks,
feedback
·
Total
Physical Response Method:
Principles:
1. Spoken language is
superior to written language.
2. Enjoying in learning to
communicate in a foreign language is important.
3. There is the unity of
speech and action, non-verbal activity is
combined with a verbal activity.
4. Goals are reachable
through the use of action-based drills in the
imperative form.
5. Imperative is a powerful
linguistic device.
Approach:
Trace Theory, Humanism
Syllabus:
Sentence-based
TR/LR:
Teacher is demonstrator, organizer, director.
Learner is imitator,
performer.
Techniques:
1. Use of commands.
2. Role reversal.
3. Continuous physical
movement.
·
Community
Language Learning Method:
Principles:
1. Building a relationship
with and among students is very important.
2. Language is for
communication.
3. The teacher counsels the
students.
4. Cooperation should be
encouraged.
5. Individuals learn as
whole persons. Teachers and
students are
whole persons.
6. Encouragement is
essential.
Approach:
Counselling-learning, Theory Humanism
Syllabus:
Topic-based, Student-generated.
TR/LR:
Teacher is counselor. Learner
is client.
Techniques:
1. Tape-recording.
2. Transcriptions.
3. Analysis.
4. Translation.
5. Group-work.
·
Suggestopedia:
Principles:
1. Learning takes places in
a relaxed comfortable environment.
2. Unconscious way of
learning is emphasized.
3. The case of a unity
between conscious and subconscious learning is
enhanced.
4. Dramatization facilitates
learning.
5. The centrality of music
and musical rhytm to learning is a noticeable
feature.
6. Learning should be as
enjoyable as possible.
Approach:
Suggestology (Lozanov, G. 1978)
Syllabus:
Task-based
TR/LR:
Teacher is the authority, organizer.
Leaner volunteer for a
suggestopedic course.
Techniques:
1. Providing as relaxed and
comfortable an environment as possible.
2. Role play.
3. Reading.
4. Positive suggestion.
·
Natural
Way Method:
Principles:
1. Communication is the
primary function of language.
2. Language is viewed as a
vehicle for communicating meanings and
messages.
3. Tradition of language
teaching methods based on observation and
interpretation of how learner acquire both first and second language in
non-formal settings.
Approach:
Traditional (Krashen and Terrel 1983:9)
Syllabus:
Topic-based, Situational
TR/LR:
Teacher is the source and the generator of input, creator of a
classroom
in which there is a low affective filter for learning. Learner is acquirer,
participant.
Techniques:
1. Command based activities.
2. Group work.
3. Activities in which mime
gesture and context are used to
elicit question and answer.
4.
II. 1.
APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING TAKEN BY
COURSEBOOK
Before starting to write a Coursebook, the writer must have an idea about
language learning/ teaching principles that he finds effective.
Upon his view the writer organizes his coursebook, putting the principles
of the approach into practise.
The range of visual aids of grammar explanations, vocabulary, activities,
how they are presented and practised depends on his opinions.
The Enterprise Coursebooks have taken the Communicative Approach as their
underlying approach.
In general, its principles are used while designing the lay out of the
books. Beside
this, also principles from other approaches have been taken to make the
learning/ teaching process more successful.
Also, while organising a Coursebook, writers should be aware of learning
strategies, that each student have different learning styles.
It is important to represent their methodological view in respect to
students' learning styles, to train students in new attitudes to language
learning. (Cunningsworth,
A., 1995)
As pointed out before, the emphasize is on communication.
It is important that students not only negotiate, communicate but also
discover the nature of that language.
In each unit speaking, pronounciation, communication parts are included
to improve their communicative abilities.
An outcome of Communicative approach as inductive approach of grammar
teaching is taken. Grammar
appears first within a context, in it learners see its use, discover its
strategies and then after studying the context the rules are presented in a
structural way, actually it can be said that both inductive and deductive
techniques of giving the grammar items are balanced.
The aim of giving the rules in a meaningful context is to facilitate the
learning and make it more comprehensible.
4.
II. 2.
TECHNIQUES USED FOR PRESENTING AND PRACTICING
NEW
LANGUAGE ITEMS
New language items are represented within a meaningful context.
Presenting new vocabulary in this way is especially very profitable
because learners encounter the meaning of the word without translating it into
their mother-tongue.
They interprete its meaning from the sentence in which it's used.
New vocabulary is both presented in texts and also with the help of
visual aids. In
the 6th Unit of Enterprise 2- Elementary, Coursebook, foods are presented with
the help of visual aids and when they are used in a text, they are written in
italics to draw learners' attention.
The topic affects the kind of vocabulary.
The vocabulary given varies according to what the topic is about.
Different exercises are used for teaching, such as matching meaning with
the pictures, completing the sentences with recently taught words, writing own
sentences using the vocabulary.
To make the meaning even more clear, semantic relations are also made use
of. Units
contain vocabulary sections, where words/ phrases are presented and learners are
asked to build sentences.
In a unit the use of new vocabulary is asked from students to use in
different exercises, so it's recycled and the reinforcement is ensured.
Both grammar and vocabulary is related to students' knowledge.
They are presented from familiar to the unknown, easy to difficult.
So, the appearance of the new items doesn't irritate the students so
much. For
instance, Enterprise 1- Beginner, Coursebook, starts with the presentation of
verb 'to be' and ends with the presentation of 'Present Perfect Tense'.
Between these units students learn all tenses and useful language
expressions related to each unit.
The whole book is organized and presented in a style appropriate to its
users concerning need and interest.
The book try to draw most of the learners attention and interest by
putting topics which students need to be familiar with and accompany them with a
whole range of visual aids.
4.
II. 3.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATIVE ABILITIES
Skills and communication practise is given in every unit.
Reading, Speaking, listening, writing skills are taught in seperate
parts. Skills
are taught in isolated or integrated exercises.
While given a reading passage students may also be asked to listen or to
speak about it or students listen to a conversation and repeat it after.
(Enterprise 2- Elementary, Coursebook, Unit 4)
Reading is taught by giving articles, passages, letters about a common
topic and asking questions to check their comprehension or understanding of
words in the context.
Speaking is mostly related to reading.
The students talk about the subject matter they have read, give their own
opinions of it. Also,
in language development section is sometimes on speaking parts but here the
students are asked to produce structure drills, work in pairs.
Writing skill is presented in a controlled way.
Before giving a writing task, the students are presented with
explanations about writing strategies, about topics, thesis statements, letter
writing and learners are expected to write in that way.
Listening is accompanied with casettes, students listen and identify
stress, intonation, hear right pronounciation in actual language use.
Communication sections are mostly about the themes of the units.
Learners act out expressions that are suitable in specific settings, in a
restaurant, at a post office.
Communication practise is made by giving conversational exchanges which
students listen/ read and then act out, using authentic responses.
Role plays, dialogues are used to improve.