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Language Development, Language Learning Theories, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner and Constructivism

The nature of language and language learning has always been a controversial area for human mind. From the very early stages of human intellect, language has been explained by many philosophers and thinkers. However, the explanations have evolved throughout the centuries, and even in the 21st century there can be found something new to be said about its nature. Thoroughly, as the language is explained in better terms, the learning theories also reshape and evolve accordingly.  Approaches to the nature of language, change the approaches to its learning as well. It is of very fact that seeing language as a behavior and as a cognitive process would determine learning of it in two distinct ways. Considering the language as the completion of both behaviors and cognitive processes would lead us to think of learning the language as a more different process than the first two. 

Having a look at the scientific debates on language should be my first accomplishment. Linguistics and scientific researches approach language in three dimensions. The first approach sees the language as a human phenomenon, the second as societal phenomenon, and the last one sees language as a system or structure on its own. Here we can easily detect the different views of researchers on the nature of language and on what language is. It is true that language has all of the dimensions mentioned above; on the other hand it is also true to say that language is the combination of all three approaches. Language is firstly a human phenomenon, but it plays a crucial role in making the society, and gives a status to individuals in their environments. In addition, language, in Saussurean terms, signifies individual thoughts, beliefs and culture, which are the outcome of societal life, in order, which we call system and structure. Certain sounds come together to represent what individuals have in their cognitive environments. Although language, written or spoken, is commonly observable, it is mainly caused by cognitive processes. Language is seen as a uniquely human mental faculty with its own biologically determined structure and principles. (Chomsky, 1957) In this respect, we know that generative language is unique to humans. Language is the product of multiple determinants operating through number of mediating processes. These determinants are cognitive skills that require humans to perceive the essential elements of speech, to recognize and remember the abstract rules, and to select the appropriate words and production rules to figure out linguistic knowledge in different areas of discourse. ( Bandura, 1989)

As is interpreted from the definition above language has various aspects in itself, in-dept examination of the definition would reveal these aspects. The first aspect is that it has a generative nature, which means that language is productive, what the German linguist and philosopher Humboldt states by “the infinite use of finite means”. Second are the cognitive skills which enable humans to perceive and understand the elements of speech. These are the biological faculties that humans employ during the speech event. Next are the speech elements themselves, the systematic and audio-visual features of language, heard or seen.  Afterwards, the productive dimension comes, which enables humans to put what they interpret into order and pack the response to be delivered. The linguistic knowledge is ordered according to the discourse area, which determines what rules and what words would be chosen from the scratch. As seen language is a kind of process that requires hearing, processing, interpreting, organizing and producing. 

Another view suggests that;

“Initially, children acquire knowledge about objects and about the relationships between them through non-linguistic processing of direct and various experience. Such understanding helps to impart meaning to linguistic symbols. By relating the utterances they hear to what they understand to be going on at the moment, children begin to grasp what the different linguistic forms signify.” (Macnamara, 1972)

Here again we see the different aspects of language such as knowledge, non-linguistic processing, linguistic symbols, grasping and signifying. This tells us that language employs more than one domain in its nature.

When it comes to language learning all of these aspects need to be revised as well. The multidimensional nature of language is reflected into the learning of it. For example, the subject to learn the language would need to have a biological faculty ready to learn. Moreover, when language and learning are on the agenda, we shouldn’t forget Krashen’s separation between acquisition and learning processes. He notes that “Learning is characterized by conscious attention to structure, verbalization about rules followed, and in the classroom by particular exercises to internalize the matter under consideration” (Krashen, 1983:27). In his view, acquisition involves understanding and communication while the learning is concerned with the conscious monitoring of language use, mainly metacognition. Krashen also argues that acquisition processes are more critical than the learning processes. Here he makes distinction between learning of first and second language. Therefore, research on language can be divided into first and second language learning settings.

The scope of my work is second language learning of young learners. Consequently, I will concentrate more on the second or foreign language learning. I prefer to say foreign language learning because the study setting of my study is Turkey where second or third languages are learned as foreign languages. I am well aware of the fact that there is a difference between second language and foreign language practically. In my understanding, “second language” is used for the contexts in which a language (official language) apart from “mother tongue” is learned because of social necessities like the language is used for governmental issues and some certain contexts like in case of official judgment. Also when there is more than one mother tongue in a specific country to unite citizens by one certain language, as is the case of English in South Africa. In other countries where there is not such a necessity a new language is learned as a foreign language as is Turkey, Russia, and many others. Homogeneity and heterogeneity of people in a country seem to play a crucial role in the definition of “second” and “foreign” language.

After differentiating between the terms, now I can start arguing about the theories of language learning of children. Thus, I believe, I would be able to clear the grounds for adopting an appropriate direction towards improvement of foreign language teaching to young learners in Turkey, and help in determining new educational policies for learning and teaching of foreign languages to children. Giving fresh insights on learning and teaching of young learners in Turkey is planned to be another contribution of my study.

After a short explanation on the most significant theories, approaches and models on language learning and acquisition, I will proceed into the latest and most recent theories. Then, I will further my study with the key concepts of language learning of young learners, the distinctive features of children, and learner variables of this process. Next, I will mention and argue about natural and guided learning, and come to an end by inserting some insights on teaching English to young learners.

Learning Theories

The Critical Period Hypothesis is the name of the idea that young children can learn a second language distinctively proficiently before puberty because their brains are still able to use the mechanisms that facilitate first language acquisition. The Critical Period Hypothesis claims that older learners will learn language differently after this stage and, especially for accent; they will hardly ever succeed the same level of proficiency. Lightbown and Spada (1999) bring forward evidence approving and disapproving this view while they recall of the different needs, motivations and contexts of different groups of people. Kim’s (1997) study of brain activities during language processing also supports this view .In his study, he observed that the brain activity patterns of early bilinguals, who learn two languages at the same time from infancy, differ from those learners who begin learning a language after about 7 or 8 years of age; that is to say that different parts of the brain are used for language recall and activation. Alptekin (2003) talks about the professional neurons who are particularly designed for language acquisition, and when they are not used in early stages they die so that this perplexes second or foreign language learning in later stages.

The relation of how children learn the language and their brain use is pointed out in some more researches. One is that brain also seeks meaning to make use of its neural connections. That is, the brain innately searches for meaning through seeking patterns. The patterns give context to knowledge which may otherwise be abandoned as meaningless (Coward 1990). Freeman (1995) suggests that “it is the making of familiar connections (relevance) and the locating of conforming neural networks (pattern making) that are critical to the formation of meaning.” For younger children, learning that is experiential and relevant enables patterns to develop. Relevance makes it possible for children to make individual links between background knowledge and what they perform. Relevance, thus, is created by connections of prior learning and experiences, and context and pattern making may result from the use of universal concepts and basic organizing principles (Jensen 1998).

Another noteworthy outlook comes from The Competition Model of linguistic performance. This theory explains how first language learning may affect consequent second or foreign language development (Bates and MacWhinney, 1989). In this model, different languages carry the meaning differently, and the different ways in which a language encodes meaning play the role of “cues” to interpreting the meaning of what is being said. For example word order of English is very reliable and helpful “cue” that helps learners identify Subject and Object, namely who is acting and on what. All levels of language can provide cues, including lexis, morphology word endings or prefixes, and phonology. Language in use carries cues to meaning that may be noticed. Children need skilled help in noticing and attending to aspects of the foreign language that carry meaning. Children are learning both the whole and the parts. When faced with talk in the new language, they try to understand it in terms of the grammar and salient cues of their first language and also pay particular attention to items of foreign vocabulary that they are familiar with (Harley, 1994; Schmidt, 1990) Directing attention is a key principle with many applications in the young learner classroom. (Cameron, 2002)

Lilly Wong Fillmore (1985,1987,1991) in her Social, Linguistic, and Cognitive Processes Model for the second language learning process approaches the subject matter from sociological perspective, pointing out that second language learning would occur in social contexts. She states that learners figure out the system of rules of the new language and internalize it discovering the speech segments that represent meanings and how they unite together to express complex thoughts. To figure out, learners use their cognitive tools such as associative, inferential, analytical skills and memory. In addition, to communicate their thoughts and feelings in the new language the learners would use the same way as they do with the first language.

Unlike Fillmore, Wayne Thomas and Virginia Collier, in their The Prism Model, approach the second language learning from school setting perspective but not from the linguistic perspective only. Their theory involves four dimensions; these are sociocultural, linguistic, academic and cognitive processes. According to their multidimensional approach, all of the components contribute into the language learning and "language and cognitive development go hand in hand”. Linguistic processes employ all the language development processes including written and oral language development, cognitive dimension represents all the subconscious processes of cognitive development stemming from birth. The sociocultural aspect involves the social and cultural contexts occurring in learner’s life including home, school and society settings.  Lastly, the academic processes incorporate all school work in language and other discourses of academic study. It is believed that academic work expands the vocabulary, sociolinguistic, discourse knowledge of the new language and helps in developing cognitive levels. (Thomas & Collier, 1997)

According to the Treshold Level Approach, there are two different stages of language learning which are separated by a threshold. The first stage includes abilities in an interpersonal level of communication such as gestures, intonation and facial clues to show appreciation of language; these are strongly embodied in the context and situations. The second stage includes efficiency for success in school. Should the learner achieve this stage he would need to learn more advanced vocabulary, listening, writing and reading skills, besides activities which are more cognitively, academically and linguistically challenging. The transition between the two stages is called threshold moment. (Cummins, 1991)    

Selinker (1972) presents the notion of interlanguage that notes the language which a learner uses while communicating and is neither the first nor the second language, but the language which trying to acquire. This language is in between both of the languages. What the learner uses only resembles the native speakers’ choices but not identically. However, the learner is attempting to express his thoughts and feelings, and should be exposed to variety of natural discourses and be engaged in meaningful conversations, not only to practicing structures and rote-learning.

Linguistic-oriented theories of language learning have the tendency to stress the genetic mechanisms, the "universal grammars" while explaining language acquisition and learning. (Fodor, Bever & Garrett, 1974). Behavioral theories (Hull, Skinner, Thorndike) claim that association, reinforcement, and imitation are the most significant factors in the acquisition and learning of language. Cognitive theories (Ausubel, Landa, Schank) suggest that schema, rule structures, and meaning are the distinctive characteristic of language learning. Memory processes have been singled out as the basis for language comprehension (Anderson, Craik & Lockhart, Paivio). Theories of discourse (Hatch, 1983) argue that interaction with other speakers is the critical dimension in learning language, namely, syntactic structures develop from conversations. Indeed, Vygotsky also argues that all cognitive processes, including those involved in language, arise from social interaction. Theories of intelligence (Gardner) clearly indicate that there are distinct linguistic abilities that differ across individuals. The significance of learner variables in language learning has also been studied extensively, including abilities, motivation, cognitive styles, and learning strategies. Research on learning strategies (O'Malley & Chamot, A., 1990; Wenden & Rubin, 1987) indicates that student performance can be improved by following certain strategies but the results are highly dependent upon the nature of the task and differ across learners. In addition, many language researchers emphasize the inter-relationships among listening, speaking, reading, and writing processes (Clark & Clark, 1977; Cohen, 1990)

When we have a close look at the models, approaches and theories we can realize that they enlist different aspects of language, acquisition, learning and learners. Among these aspects we can conclude, cognition, society, learners, learner differences, culture, context, language, system of language, activities, behavior, academic skills, intelligence etc. The truth is that different theories and approaches have different perspectives on the notions and analyze the data with a definite outlook. The difficulty of explaining the social phenomena should be creating this diversity. Keeping this in mind, I follow the idea of harmonizing most or all of the distinctive variables in the process of foreign language learning.  As practitioners, we all know that all of these variables play important roles in language teaching. It is fundamental that language teachers pay attention to the distribution of these in their lessons. The better would be integrating these variables, as much as possible, into the learning and teaching processes of the new language.   

Approaches influencing modern language teaching

After mentioning some of the leading approaches to language acquisition and learning, I should acknowledge some current approaches and theories guiding language teaching to young learners today. This section will examine the views of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner who, with their ideas, reflected and contributed into the theories of child development, cognitive and language development, language learning and teaching. Social Cognitive Theory and Constructivism is among these theories.

Piaget’s Theory of Learning

Jean Piaget was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Cognitive structuring of the knowledge was fundamental in his theory. According to his theory, cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development. He has integrated both behavior and cognitive aspects in one developmental theory. In his theory he put forward four primary developmental stages. They are sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperation period (3-7 years) is intuitive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions. (Cameron, 2002)

When it comes to the educational reflections of his theory, Paiget sees the child as “continually interacting with the world around him/her solving problems that are presented by the environment” and learning occurs through taking action to solve the problems. Moreover, the knowledge that results from these actions is not imitated or from birth, but “actively constructed” by the child. In this way thought is seen as deriving from action; action is internalized, or carried out mentally in the imagination, and in this way thinking develops. For Piaget, action should be praised as fundamental to cognitive development, and development is the result of two ways, which are assimilation and accommodation. When the action occurs without causing any change in the child assimilation happens; on the contrary, when the child adjusts himself to the environment in some ways, accommodation is involved. Both of these adaptive processes occur together, despite they are very different; they are initially adaptive processes of behavior, but become processes of thinking. Cognitive development consists of a constant effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. Mclaughlin (1992) reports that “Accommodation is an important idea that has been taken into second language learning under the label ”restructuring” used to refer to the re-organization of mental representations of a language. In this sense, Piaget's theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning.

            From a Piagetian viewpoint, a child’s thinking develops as gradual growth of knowledge and intellectual skills towards a final stage of formal, logical thinking.( Cameron, 2002) Thoroughly, according to his notion of discrete stages and the idea that children cannot do certain things if they have not yet “reached” that stage should be considered as well. For, children cannot achieve to perform some cognitive or physical actions until maturation. Consequently, learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities should be avoided.

            Child is seen as an active learner and thinker, as a sense maker who is constructing his own knowledge by thriving with objects and ideas. Moreover, “(the child) actively tries to make sense of the world… asks questions… wants to know… Also from very early stage, the child has purposes and intentions”. Donaldson 1978:86) However, child’s sense making is limited by their experience, so, teachers should employ teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges

            From Piaget’s theory we can interpret the classroom and classroom activities as creating and offering opportunities to learners for learning. This view coincides with ‘ecological’ thinking that sees events and activities as offering affordances or opportunities for use and interaction that depend on who is involved. (Cameron2002:5)

            Piaget has related cognitive development of an individual and his environment. Thus, he has made it possible for later theoreticians to prepare frameworks for other theories, like Constructivism, standing on his views.    

Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning

            Vygotsky’s main concern is that social interaction and social context, a world full of other people, who interact with the child from birth onwards, are essential in the cognitive development. He states that "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (Vygotsky, 1978:57).  

            Next, he points out at the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span, which he names the “zone of proximal development”. (ZPD) In addition, full development during ZDP depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. It is of very fact that other people play important roles in helping children to learn, providing objects and ideas to their attention, talking while playing and sharing while playing, reading stories, asking questions. In a wide range of ways, adults mediate the world for children and make it possible for them to get access to it. The ability to learn through instruction and mediation is characteristic of human intelligence. By the help of adults children can do and understand more than they can on their own. (Cameron, 2002:5-8) Actually, Vygotsky proposed the notion of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to give a new meaning to ‘intelligence’. Instead of measuring intelligence by what a child can do alone, Vygotsky suggested that intelligence could better be measured by what a child can do with skilled help.

Vygotsky attempted to shed light on consciousness which develops as a result of socialization. While learning a language the first utterances have a communicational purpose, but once internalized they become “inner speech”. Young children can often be observed talking to themselves and act as if they carry out tasks or play, in what is called private speech. As children get older they gradually speak less and less loud, and differentiate between social speech for others and ‘inner speech’, which continues to play an important role in regulating and controlling behavior. Wertsch (1985) emphasizes that internalization for Vygotsky was not just transfer but also a transformation; being able to think about something is qualitatively different from being able to do it. In the internalizing process, the interpersonal, joint talk and joint activity, later becomes intrapersonal, mental action by one individual. Development can be seen as internalizing from social interaction. Language can grow as the child takes over control of language used initially with other children and adults.

Although Vygotsky’s theory is currently most noted for his central focus on the social, and modern developments are labeled ‘sociocultural theory’, he did not neglect the individual or individual cognitive development.(Cameron, 2002) In Vygotskian terms, language provides the child with a new tool, opens up new opportunities for doing things and for organizing information through the use of words as symbols. The infant begins with using single words, but these words convey whole messages. As the child’s language develops, the whole undivided thought message can be broken down into smaller units and expressed by putting together words that are now units of talk. The word is a recognizable linguistic unit for children in their first language and so they will notice words in the new language. The new language is first used meaningfully by teacher and pupils, and later it is transformed and internalized to become part of the individual child’s language skills or knowledge. Children’s foreign language learning depends on what they experience. Within the ZPD, the broader and richer the language experience that is provided for children, the more they are likely to learn. The activities that happen in classroom create a kind of environment for teaching, and as such, offer different kinds of opportunities for language learning. Part of teaching skill is to identify the particular opportunities of task or activity, and then to develop them into learning experiences for the children. (Cameron, 2002:5-20)           

The Social Development Theory of Vygotsky has got many implications in many theories like   Social Cognitive Theory, Situated Learning Theory and Constructivism. The key components explained in Vygotsky’s theory have been broadened later by many researchers.

Bruner’s Views on Learning

            A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current and past knowledge. The learner chooses and permutes the knowledge, constructs hypotheses, makes decisions, and while performing these he relies on his cognitive structuring. His cognitive structure caters for grasping the meaning and organization of the experiences, and enables him to “go beyond the given information” 

            When the instruction is considered, the instructor should try and encourage the student to discover the principles themselves. This should be achieved through engagement of learners and teacher in an active conversation. Teachers should be able to transform the materials to be learned in such a way that it suits the learners’ cognitive level. The way of presenting the materials should be spiral not linear so that it allows both learners to contemplate and construct gradually upon what they have learned.   

            Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Bruner notes that “language is the most important tool for cognitive growth”. He investigated how adults use language to mediate the world for children and help them to solve problems. Talk that supports a child in carrying out an activity, as a kind of verbal version of fine tuned help has been labeled as “scaffolding”.  Children need space for language growth. Routines and scaffolding are to types of language-using strategies that seem to be especially helpful in making space for children.  Mothers who used scaffolded talk made the children interested in the task, simplified the task by breaking it into smaller steps, kept the child on track onwards completing the task by reminding the child what the goal was, pointed out what was important to do or showed the child other ways of doing the parts of the tasks, controlled the child’s frustration during the tasks, demonstrated an idealized version of the task. Moreover, good scaffolding was tuned to the needs of the child and adjusted as the child became more competent. (Cameron, 2002:8-10)

For the classroom settings ,Wood (1998) suggested that teachers can scaffold children’s learning in various ways: to attend what is relevant, adopt useful strategies, remember the whole task and goals teachers can suggest, praise the significant, provide focusing activities, encourage rehearsal, be explicit about organization, remind, model, provide part-whole activities. Also classroom language and routines occurring everyday can provide opportunities for language development. They would allow the child to actively make sense of new language from experience and provide space for language growth. Routines will open up many possibilities for developing language skills.(Cameron, 2002:8-11)

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory biases a model of causation involving triadic reciprocal determinism. In this model of reciprocal causation, behavior, cognition and other personal factors, and environmental influences all operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally.(Vasta. R:2 ) To explain this, we should encounter that human expectations, beliefs, emotional bents and cognitive competencies are developed and modified by social influences that convey information and activate emotional reactions through modeling, instruction and social persuasion. (Bandura, 1986)

The plasticity, which is intrinsic to the nature of humans, is determined by devoted neurophysiologic mechanisms and structures that have evolved in time. The advanced neural systems, which are specialized for processing, retaining, and using coded information, provide the capacity for the very characteristics that are distinctly human- generative symbolization, forethought, evaluative self regulation, reflective self-consciousness, and symbolic communication. (Bandura, 1986)

The distinguishing ability to use symbols enables humans with a dynamic tool for understanding and managing their environment. Knowledge and thinking skills grant the substance and tool for cognitive problem solving. Cognitive production involves intention, creation and exercise of personal agency. Maturational factors and the information gained from explanatory experiences contribute to cognitive growth.

Applying the social cognitive theory into learning we recognize that Bandura (1977) emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. He states that: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22).

The social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.

When it comes to language acquisition, children acquire knowledge about objects and about the relationships between them through non-linguistic processing of direct and various experience. Such an understanding helps to impart meaning to linguistic symbols. By relating the utterances they hear to what they understand to be going on at the moment, children begin to grasp what the different linguistic forms signify. (Macnamara, 1972)

After children learn the names for the things and how to represent conceptual relationships in words, language can influence how children perceive, organize, and interpret events. Language thus becomes not only a means of communication but also a way of shaping the form of thought. The rules for encoding semantic relations in words are originally learned from discourses regarding concrete events of high interest and meaning to children. As they master linguistic competencies, language becomes more abstract and is no longer dependant on the co-occurrence of actual events. This greatly extends the power of language as a tool of thought. (Vasta, 10)

Linguistic rules must be initially modeled in simplified, as well as in semantically enriched forms to make them more easily learnable. In daily life, when the parents are addressing young children, they use utterances that are shorter, more repetitive, and grammatically simpler, than when they speak to older children. (Snow, 1972) Moreover, parents speak slower - this facilitates the processing of linguistic input - and they use exaggerated intonation as an attention-focusing device. The linguistic environment is populated not only with adults but other children as well. Young children often model the language use of their peers. Young children also simplify their speech when they are talking to younger children. Children master words and linguistic forms at a very early age if provided with enriched language stimulation that matches their cognitive level. ( Shatz & Gelman, 1973, Hamilton & Stewart, 1977, Swenson, 1983) In summary, modeling, supplemented with semantic aids and devices to focus attention on key linguistic features, is a highly effective way of advancing language acquisition.

Parents are active language teachers. Their instructive and corrective strategies include repetitive modeling of more advanced linguistic forms, restructuring and elaborating the child’s constructions in modeled feedback, simplifying linguistic structures, varying content around the same structure, rephrasing utterances, promoting, questioning, informing, answering, labeling, pictorial structuring of what is being talked about, and accenting grammatically significant speech elements. (Moerc, 1986) 

            Guided instruction and modeling that effectively conveys abstract rules of reasoning promote cognitive development in children. (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978) Socially-guided learning also encourages self-directed learning by providing children with the conceptual tools needed to gain new knowledge and deal intelligently with the varied situations they encounter in the everyday life

The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images, results in better retention than simply observing. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

            Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Morover, the social cognition learning model stresses that culture is the prime determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture, and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child's learning development is affected in ways large and small by the culture--including the culture of family environment--in which he or she is enmeshed.

Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child's intellectual development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content of their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surrounding culture provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking, what Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think. And, cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this responsibility transfers to the child.

Some studies indicate that experience affects the physical structure of the brain, this is the phenomenon known as plasticity. The brain makes new connections with environmental stimulation (Diamond 1988) and modifies itself structurally depending on the amount and way of usage (Healy 1990). Each new stimulation and experience modifies the brain. Enriched environments enable the brain to grow more neural connections, thickening the cortex of the brain; on the contrary, less stimulating environments actually have a thinning effect on the cortex (Diamond and Hopson 1998). Enriched environments provide challenge by including reading and language, motor stimulation, stimulating surroundings, and a wide variety of approaches to thinking and problem solving. Exposing children to various problem solving approaches grants the complexity of the brain. Children need to be encouraged to explore alternative thinking, multiple answers and creative insights. For experience structurally adjusts the brain, the more we learn, the more unique our brains become. Neural pathways which make it easier for us to improve thinking skills are very specific and in some cases when a student succeeds in one way of thinking, they may have difficulty with another.

Emotions are part of learning, actually they may ease learning. Emotions enhance making better value-based decisions as all values are emotional states. Emotions generate and enhance the execution of our aims and plans (Freeman 1995). Emotions ease attention, create meaning, and have their own memory pathways (LeDoux 1994). Chemicals activated by emotions make it easier for us to recall things better by affecting the long-term memory. When emotions are engaged the brain learns fastest and easiest during the early years.

Constructivism

The latest most fashionable word in education is "constructivism," applied both to learning theory and to epistemology---both to how people learn, and to the nature of knowledge. We need to think about our work in relation to theories of learning and knowledge. So, what is constructivism, what does it have to tell us that is new and relevant, and how do we apply it to our work?

As a philosophy of learning, constructivism can be traced at least to the eighteenth century and the work of the Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that humans can only clearly understand what they have themselves constructed. Many others worked with these ideas, but the first major contemporaries to develop a clear idea of constructivism as applied to classrooms and childhood development were Jean Piaget and John Dewey.

For Dewey education depended on action. Knowledge and ideas emerged only from a situation in which learners had to draw them out of experiences that had meaning and importance to them (see Democracy and Education, 1916). These situations had to occur in a social context, such as a classroom, where students joined in manipulating materials and, thus, created a community of learners who built their knowledge together.

Piaget's constructivism is based on his view of the psychological development of children. In a short summation of his educational thoughts (To Understand is to Invent, 1973), Piaget called for teachers to understand the steps in the development of the child's mind. The fundamental basis of learning, he believed, was discovery: "To understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition." To reach an understanding of basic phenomena, according to Piaget, children have to go through stages in which they accept ideas they may later see as not truthful. In autonomous activity, children must discover relationships and ideas in classroom situations that involve activities of interest to them. Understanding is built up step by step through active involvement.

The Russian Lev. S Vygotsky is also important to constructivism, although his ideas have not always been clear to the English-reading public both because of political constraints and because of mistranslations. Some commentators believe that Vygotsky is not a constructivist because of his emphasis on the social context in learning, but others see his stress on children creating their own concepts as constructivist to the core. Mind in the Society (English translation, 1978) is a popularization of some of his ideas for an American audience; also available is a collection of shorter works, The Vygotsky Reader (ed. Rene van der Veer and Jaan Valsiner, 1994). Vygotsky believed that children learn scientific concepts out of a "tension" between their everyday notions and adult concepts. Presented with a preformed concept from the adult world, the child will only memorize what the adult says about the idea. To make it her property the child must use the concept and link that use to the idea as a first presented to her. But the relation between everyday notions and scientific concepts was not a straight development to Vygotsky. Instead the prior conceptions and the introduced scientific concepts are interwoven and influence each other as the child works out her own ideas from the generalizations that she had already and that have been introduced to her.

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology and cybernetics. Such is the definition provided by constructivist's leading theorist, E. von Glasersfeld (1989). As von Glasersfeld (1995) comments:

“Constructivism does not claim to have made earth-shaking inventions in the area of education; it merely claims to provide a solid conceptual basis for some of the things that, until now, inspired teachers had to do without theoretical foundation.”

Von Glasersfeld's musings remind us that theory and practice exhibit a curious interplay which is sometimes unpredictable and, sometimes, unexplainable. His comments remind us as well that constructivism is more than a theory of learning. It is a way of looking at the world that is broad enough to allow for multiple interpretations and yet, defined sufficiently to allow for a perspective that can explain complex and abstract phenomenon and which can guide our actions. We tend to take for granted and accept unquestioningly the use of terms such as 'true', 'real', 'worlds'. Consideration of the complexities behind these everyday words seems far removed from the daily practice of the classroom and more like the fodder of philosophers such as Socrates.

Constructivism reminds us that these are not only important philosophical notions. On the contrary, they can significantly affect how we see the world and, more importantly, how we behave in it. Perhaps an important challenge for educational reform is to begin to question and come to a greater understanding of the philosophy, theory and epistemology that presently informs educational practice. Understanding what our behaviors and practices mean can of times be both revealing, and, hopefully, useful.

Von Glasersfeld (1995) indicates in relation to the concept of reality: "It is made up of the network of things and relationships that we rely on in our living, and on which, we believe, others rely on, too" (p.7). The knower interprets and constructs a reality based on his experiences and interactions with his environment. Rather than thinking of truth in terms of a match to reality, von Glasersfeld focuses instead on the notion of viability: "To the constructivist, concepts, models, theories, and so on are viable if they prove adequate in the contexts in which they were created" (p.7).

If we accept constructivist theory (which means we are willing to follow in the path of Dewey, Piaget and Vigotsky among others), then we have to give up Platonic and all subsequent realistic views of epistemology. We have to recognize that there is no such thing as knowledge "out there" independent of the knower, but only knowledge we construct for ourselves as we learn. Learning is not understanding the "true" nature of things, nor is it (as Plato suggested) remembering dimly perceived perfect ideas, but rather a personal and social construction of meaning out of the bewildering array of sensations which have no order or structure besides the explanations which we fabricate for them.

               In general, constructivism tends to be more holistic and less mechanistic than traditional information-processing theories (Cunningham, 1991).  People make sense out of their world by taking in information from the environment and assimilating it into their pre-existing schemas and understandings (Bransford & Vye, 1989).  Learners undergo conceptual change by directly confronting misconceptions (Wilson & Cole, 1991a). Some constructivists have aligned themselves with the situated cognition movement (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989), asserting that because cognition depends on our experience base, cognitive apprenticeships and other authentic teaching methods are preferable (Clancey, 1992). The roots of many constructivist beliefs are traceable to postmodern philosophies which depart from the rationalist, objectivist, and technocratic tendencies of modern society.

Principles of learning

What are some guiding principles of constructivist thinking that we must keep in mind when we consider our role as educators? I will outline a few ideas, all predicated on the belief that learning consists of individuals' constructed meanings.

  1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active learner (Dewey's term) stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner s engaging with the world.

  2. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.

  3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands (Dewey called this reflective activity.)

  4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical level. Researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more general level. There is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vigotsky, that language and learning are inextricably intertwined. This point was clearly emphasized in Elaine Gurain's reference to the need to honor native language in developing North American exhibits. The desire to have material and programs in their own language was an important request by many members of various Native American communities.

  5. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards isolating the learner from all social interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the objective material to be learned. In contrast, progressive education (to continue to use Dewey's formulation) recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application of knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.

  6. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.

  7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.

  8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especially, moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation.

Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This idea of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the knowledge that may be instilled in us. Even by the most severe and direct teaching.

Jonassen(1991) notes that many educators and cognitive psychologists have applied constructivism to the development of learning environments. From these applications, he has isolated a number of design principles:

1.    Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant;

2.    Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;

3.    The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems;

4.    Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content;

5.    Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed;

6.    Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;

7.    Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world;

8.    Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner (pp.11-12).

Jonassen (1994) summarizes what he refers to as "the implications of constructivism for instructional design". The following principles illustrate how knowledge construction can be facilitated:

1.    Provide multiple representations of reality;

2.    Represent the natural complexity of the real world;

3.    Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction;

4.    Present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction);

5.    Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences;

6.    Foster reflective practice;

7.    Enable context-and content dependent knowledge construction;

8.    Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation (p.35).

Wilson & Cole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching models which "embody" constructivist concepts. From these descriptions, we can isolate some concepts central to constructivist design, teaching and learning:

1.    Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;

2.    Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;

3.    Provide for learner control;

4.    Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding (pp.59-61).

Paul Ernest (1995) in his description of the many schools of thought of constructivism suggests the following implications of constructivism which derive from both the radical and social perspectives:

1.    sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learner's previous constructions;

2.    diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner errors and misconceptions;

3.    attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;

4.    the use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;

5.    awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the dichotomy between learner and teacher goals;

6.    awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the difference between folk or street mathematics and school mathematics (and an attempt to exploit the former for the latter) (p.485).

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments:

1.    Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

2.    Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

3.    Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

4.    Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

5.    Embed learning in social experience;

6.    Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;

7.    Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process (p.11).

An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According to Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving skills fall into three categories:

1.    skills which the student cannot perform

2.    skills which the student may be able to perform

3.    skills that the student can perform with help

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow students to function at the cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore an important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.

Multiple perspectives, authentic activities, real-world environments these are just some of the themes that are frequently associated with constructivist learning and teaching. There were many similarities between the perspectives of different researchers in this brief review of the literature. The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of constructivist learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by the previous section on constructivist theory. These are not presented in a hierarchical order.

1.    Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged.

2.    Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system.

3.    Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.

4.    Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage metacognition, self-analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.

5.    The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.

6.    Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.

7.    Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.

8.    Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.

9.    This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration and experience.

10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process.

11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.

12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge constructions.

13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.

14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.

15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning.

16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to alternative viewpoints.

17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.

Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.

             Lebow (1993) has proposed the following "Five Principles Toward a New Mindset," to influence the design of constructivist lesson plans.
1- Maintain a buffer between the learner and the potentially damaging effects of instructional practices.
2- Provide a context for learning that supports both autonomy and relatedness.
3- Incorporate the reasons for learning into the learning activity.
4- Support self-regulated learning by promoting attitudes that enable the learner to assume responsibility for learning.
5- Strengthen the tendencies of the learner to engage in learning processes, by encouraging exploration of mistakes (Lebow 1993, 5-6).
 Constructivism ...

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