Cognitive Models of SLA

•Looki= ng at interlanguage processes =

•Inte= rlanguage in context

•

Cognitive Models of SLA = Sociolinguistic Approaches to SLA

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Outline

1.Information Processing

2.Competition Model =

3.Connectioist Model

4.The Monitor Model =

5.Variation

•

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1. Information processing in SLA

<= span style=3D'font-size:114%'>•Key assumptions: <= /div>

<= span style=3D'font-size:114%'>•> Humans are limited-capacity processors.

= - capacity is a function of organizat= ion: quality and quantity

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%;visibility:hidden'>•

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%'>•> SLA is a cognitive skill.

- can be broken down into subskills. <= span style=3D'mso-tab-count:2;width:13.56%'>

Controlled

Automatic

Restructuring=

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Restructuring

•Restr= ucturing is the process by which task compone= nts are coordinated, integrated, or reorgan= ized into new units. Procedures involvin= g old components are replaced by more efficient procedures involving new componen= ts. •�= � >> Restructuring attempts to account for = transitions in skill levels.

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Characteristics of the input-matching = approach

• Language is learned

• Associative mechanisms of learning

• Language knowledge is graded=

• Learning outcomes are = a probabilistic function of input type and quantity

• (IOW: The more you are expos= ed to a form the more likely you are to learn it.)

• The unity of processing and learning

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Associative learning is:

•"the ability of an organism to ad= apt its behaviour as a result of acquiring information about associations or contingencies that exist between ev= ents in its environment". =

•There are two types of associative learning:

•Causal associations link elements in a temporal sequence, in which one cue in the environment is associated with another cue that immediate= ly follows.

•Structural= associations link features of a single entity. The set of individual links are perceived as a single configuration.

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2. Competition Model

• “Speakers must have a way to dete= rmine relationships among elements i= n a sentence.”

In processing meaning we u= se these cues:

1) Syntax

Word order (SVO)

Morphology (case of nouns, subject-verb agreement)

2) Semantics <= /div>

Human

Animate

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The Competition M= odel

•In some = cases semantic and syntactic cues converge.

The cows eat the grass.

<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>•

•In other cases semantic and syntactic cues conflict. <= /b>
• The chair asked the dog to go.

<= span style=3D'color:#009999;mso-color-index:6;visibility:hidden'>• =
•The interpretation we choose is based on competition among cues.

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Sentence Interpretation Task: Assigning the actor

• = The boy threw the rock.
•NP1 NP2

•Word order cue: Pr= everbal noun >>> Subject (English SVO)=

•Knowledge= of meaning = of lexical items.

<= span style=3D'font-family:"Times New Roman"'>•Animacy cue: Animate subjects “throw”

•Contrastive stress: Agent marked by stress.

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Which noun phrase is the agent/subject of the sentence?

•1. The rock= the scissor kissed.

•2. Ate the = thing the man.

•3. The hors= e hit the tree.

•4. The hous= e the doctor met.

•5. Saw the = boy the girl.

•6. The boat= the giraffe steered.

•7. The husb= and the wife visited.

•8. Played t= he time the room.

<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial;visibility:hidden'>•

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3. Connectionist M<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial;font-size:111%;color:black;mso-ansi-language:10= 24'>odels

•a.k.a. neural networks, neural computing, parallel distributed processing

•Model Overv= iew: Units= and<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial;color:black;mso-ansi-language:1024'> connections

•Network of interconnected exemp= lars and patte= rns.

c

a

t

cat

eat

e

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4.= The Monitor Model

•The Monitor Model is a gener= al term for an approach to second language learning proposed by S. Krashen. The Monitor Model consists of five interrelated constructs, which the author labels hypotheses:
•

• 1. The acquisition/learning hypothesis.

• 2. The monitor hypothesis.&#= 13;

• 3. The natural order hypothe= sis .

• 4. The input hypothesis. = ;

• 5. The affective filter hypo= thesis.

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1.The acquisition/learning hypothesis <= /div>
–Adult= s have two independent ways of developing competence in SL: –(1) acquisition – unconscious process similar to Chomsky's language acquisition device (LAD) that is, identical to the way children develop = ability in their first language. –(2) learning - conscious knowledge of a second language, knowin= g, being aware, and being able to articulate the rules.

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1. The acquisition/learning hypothesis

•   The acquisition/learning hypothesis: two key claims

–

–1. Adul= ts can access same LAD as children

–2. Learning and acquisition are separate processes: learning cannot become acquisition =

–

–Learning > practice > acq= uisition seems a plausible way to describe the way we learn. How= ever, there three reasons why the learning and acquisition are separate:

–

–i. acquisition can occur without learning

–i.e. language can be picked up

–ii. learning may not become acquisiti= on e.g. fossilisation =

–iii. impossible to know all the rules=

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2. The Monitor Hypothesis

–

•L= earning serves as a monitor on output that is initiated by the 'acquired' system. At best it provides a 'fine-tuning' of productio= n.

•=                        �= � Learned Competence (the Monitor)

•=

•= Acquired                       �= �                       output

•= Competence

•=

•=

•I= mplication for teaching: focus on communication, not rule-learning.

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2. The Monitor Hypothesi= s:
Conditions for use

•The Mon= itor is only used when three conditions are met= :

– i. Enough time is available&= #13;

– ii. There is a focus on form=

– iii. There is knowledge of rule

•Monitor is only available in production

•The Mon= itor is used to explain individual differen= ces and adult/child differences; Childre= n do not use Monitor, as it appears at onset of formal operations

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3. The Natural Order Hypothesis

•L2 le= arners acquire grammatical structure in a predictable order.
<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>•
•Originally one natural order was posited but gi= ven the difficulty in assessing compara= bility of structures, multiple stream= s of development are assumed.

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3 Acquisit= ion Hierarchy (Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1= 982)

• GROUP I
– CASE (I/me) = WORD ORDER (simple sentences)

–                       �= �

–             = GROUP II

= – SINGULAR COPULA (‘s/is) SINGULAR AUXILIARY (‘s/is)

–                  PLURA= L AUX (are) PROGRESSIVE (-ing) <= /span>

–                       �= �

–                       �= �                             GROUP III =

– PAST IRREGULAR (went) CONDITIONAL AUX (w= ould)

–                  POSSE= SSIVE (‘s) LONG PLURAL (-es)

–                       �= �               3rd PERSON SINGULAR (-s)

–

–           GROUP IV

– PERFECT AUX (have<= span lang=3DEN-AU style=3D'font-size:67%'>) = PAST PARTICIPLE (-en)

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4. The Input Hypothesis<= br> <= /div>

•   Consists of four parts and assumes NOH is correct.

•i. = IH concerns acquisition, not learning
•ii. Acquisition occurs by understandi= ng language that contains structure just beyond current level of competence "i+1". This is done through context or extralinguistic information, i.e. acquisition is c= aused by understanding. <= span style=3D'position:absolute;top:62.25%;left:5.99%;width:105.24%;height:5.75= %'>•iii. When input is understood and the= re is enough of it,= i + 1 will be provided automatically (simplified input important). <= span style=3D'position:absolute;top:79.25%;left:5.99%;width:109.17%;height:5.75= %'>•iv. Production ability emerges, it is= not taught directly (important implications for teaching).

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4.1 Comprehensible Input

•1. CI is recep= tive language that is slightly ahead of the learner’s current state of grammatical knowledge, referred to as “i + 1”.=

–

•2. Speech emer= ges from competence built from compre= hensible input.

–

•3. Grammar kno= wledge is automatically provided by input that is both comprehensible and of sufficient quantity.

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4.2 Comprehensible Input: Where does it come from? (1)

–“foreigner talk” ( Ferg= uson, 1975)

–NS adjustment are gener= ally well-formed but modified.

–* slower, more careful pronunciation, str= ess on key words

–* shorter grammar structures

–* grammatical relations made explicit

–* less syntactic or propositional complexity <= /div>
–* restricted vocabulary size

–* fewer pro forms

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4.2 Comprehensible Input: Where does it come from? (2)

<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>•

•Interactional adjustments to NNSs •<= b>content: narrower range of topics, here and now orientation •interactional structure: acceptance of topic shifts, confirmation and clarification = checks. •paraphrase: approximation and circumlocution
<= span class=3DBB style=3D'position:absolute;left:-4.2%'>•avoidanc= e: topic avoidance.

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5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

•<= /span>There is an affective filter that subconsciously = screens incoming language based on learner's motives, needs, attitudes and emotional = states. The AF is outside the LAD proper. <= /div>
–

•<= /span>AF incorporates affective variables into the = model.

•=    Input              �= �        Acquisition             =          Acquired Competence

•=                        �= �          Device&= #13;

•= &= #13;

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Affective Filter Hypothe= sis: Characteris= tics

•AF in= corporates affective variables into the model.&= #13;•Main source of individual differences in L2 learning, determining:
<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>•

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%'>•which language models will be attende= d to;

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%'>•which part of the language will be at= tended to;

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%'>•when the learner will stop trying to = learn;

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%'>•and how fast the learner will learn.<= /span>

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Current status of the Monitor Model

•The Monitor Model has largely been rejected as a <= /span>testable theory of SLA, however, it has had a majo= r impact on SLA research. The following quote captures the prevailing view shared by most SLA researchers today:

•“…It remains true none the less that Krashe= n’s ideas have been highly influential in shaping m= any research agendas and projects, and in doing so,= considerably advancing our understanding of SLA= . Krashen’s main overall weakness was the <= /span>presentation of what were just hypotheses that = remained to be tested, as a comprehensive model= that had empirical reality. He then used his hypotheses prematurely as a basis for drawing <= /i>pedagogical conclusions.”

–Mitchell, R. & Myles, S. (1998). Second language learning theories. P. 39. London: Arnold. <= /div>

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5. Variation

•The notion of an interlanguage as= sumes that L2 d= evelopment is not arbitrary. However, at the same time, it is clear that there is a great d= eal of variability in= the way people learn a second language. People learn at different rates, follow different orders and ultimately arrive at diff= erent = places along the curve of L2 deve= lopment.

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The variationist perspective

•“ The= basic premise of sociolinguistic-based SLA research is that second language= data do not represent a static phenome= non, even at a single point in time. M= any external variables (such as the spec= ific task required of a learner, social s= tatus of the interlocutor, gender differen= ces, and so forth) affect learner producti= on.”

•                        = (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 222) <= /span>

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•Lan= guage learning as the development of function-form mappings (e.g., the Competition Model)
• subject & verb {form}

<= span style=3D'font-size:86%;text-shadow:auto'>•Daddy hit

• agent & action {function} <= span lang=3DEN-AU style=3D'display:none'>

<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>• =

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The way in which variability is accounted= for in SLA theory depends= on how L2 'competence' is defined.

•Linguistic competence    v= s. Communicative competence <= /span>

<= span style=3D'font-family:Times;font-size:71%'>•*Chomsky <= span lang=3DTR style=3D'font-family:Times;mso-ascii-font-family:Times;mso-bidi-= font-family: "Times New Roman";font-size:71%'>    =      *Labov

<= span style=3D'font-family:Times;font-size:71%'>•*structuralist     =      *functionalist=

<= span style=3D'font-family:Times;font-size:71%'>•*competence/performance                   *competence to perform

<= span style=3D'font-family:Times;font-size:71%'>•*all V non-systematic       �= �                  *V essential part of theory

<= span style=3D'font-family:Times;font-size:71%'>•*discrete, invariant rules

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strategic

sociolinguistic

Communicative competence

•Knowl= edge that enables learners to comprehend and pr= oduce the L2.
<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>•

•     linguistic          <= /span>     pragmatic

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What is t= he role of social and cultural context = in SLA theory?

•What i= s the domain of SLA theory or, in other w= ords, what determines L2 proficiency? <= /span>
<= span style=3D'visibility:hidden'>•

<= span class=3DBB style=3D'position:absolute;left:-4.32%'>•Abstract linguistic knowledge?

•             (linguistically or cognitively based)

<= span class=3DBB style=3D'position:absolute;left:-4.32%'>•Social and cultural context?

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return; if( ( g_allowAdvOnClick && !parent.IsFramesMode() ) || (event && (event.keyCode=3D=3D32) ) ) parent.GoToNextSld(); } var g_supportsPPTHTML =3D SupportsPPTHTML(), g_scaleInFrame =3D 1, gId=3D""= , g_bgSound=3D"", g_scaleHyperlinks =3D false, g_allowAdvOnClick =3D 1, g_showInBrowser = =3D 0, gLoopCont =3D 0, gUseSldTimings =3D 1; var g_showAnimation =3D g_supportsPPTHTML && SupportsPPTAnimation() && ( (w= indow.name=3D=3D"PPTSld" && !parent.IsFramesMode()) || g_showInBrowser );va= r g_animManager =3D null; var g_animUseRuntime =3D false; var g_animItemsToHide, g_animInteractiveItems, g_animSlideTime; var g_animMainSequence =3D null; var ENDSHOW_MESG=3D"End of slide show, click to exit.", SCREEN_MODE=3D"Fram= es", gIsEndShow=3D0, NUM_VIS_SLDS=3D31, SCRIPT_HREF=3D"script.js", FULLSCR_= HREF=3D"fullscreen.htm"; var gCurSld =3D gPrevSld =3D 1, g_offset =3D 0, gNtsOpen =3D gHasNts =3D gO= tlTxtExp =3D 0, gHasNarration =3D 0, gOtlOpen =3D true window.gPPTHTML=3DSupportsPPTHTML() var gMainDoc=3Dnew Array(new hrefList("slide0002.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList(= "slide0074.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0019.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("= slide0023.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0028.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("s= lide0029.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0033.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("sl= ide0075.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0034.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("sli= de0036.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0040.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slid= e0046.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0047.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide= 0048.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0049.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0= 050.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0051.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide00= 52.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0053.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide005= 4.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0055.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0056= .htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0057.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0058.= htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0064.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0065.h= tm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0066.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0067.ht= m",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0071.htm",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0072.htm= ",1,-1,1),new hrefList("slide0073.htm",1,-1,1)); /********************************************* Frameset functions These functions control slide navigation and state of the frameset. **********************************************/ function FullScrInit() { g_allowAdvOnClick =3D GetCurSld().mAdvOnClk document.body.style.backgroundColor=3D"black" document.oncontextmenu=3Dparent._CM; document.onkeydown =3D _KDH; document.ondragstart=3DCancel document.onselectstart=3DCancel self.focus() } function Redirect( frmId ) {=09 var str=3Ddocument.location.hash,idx=3Dstr.indexOf('#'), sId=3DGetSldId() if(idx>=3D0) str=3Dstr.substr(1); if( window.name !=3D frmId && ( sId !=3D str) ) { obj =3D GetObj("Main-File") window.location.href=3Dobj.href+"#"+sId return 1 } return 0 } var MHTMLPrefix =3D CalculateMHTMLPrefix();=20 function CalculateMHTMLPrefix() { if ( document.location.protocol =3D=3D 'mhtml:') {=20 href=3Dnew String(document.location.href)=20 Start=3Dhref.indexOf('!')+1=20 End=3Dhref.lastIndexOf('/')+1=20 if (End < Start)=20 return href.substring(0, Start)=20 else=20 return href.substring(0, End)=20 } return ''; } function GetTags(base,tag) { if(g_supportsPPTHTML) return base.all.tags(tag); else return base.getElementsByTagName(tag); } function UpdNtsPane(){ if(frames["PPTNts"]) PPTNts.location.replace( MHTMLP= refix+GetHrefObj( gCurSld ).mNtsHref ) } function UpdNavPane( sldIndex ){ if(gNavLoaded) PPTNav.UpdNav() } function UpdOtNavPane(){ if(gOtlNavLoaded) PPTOtlNav.UpdOtlNav() } function UpdOtlPane(){ if(gOtlLoaded) PPTOtl.UpdOtl() } function SetHasNts( fVal ) { if( gHasNts !=3D fVal ) { gHasNts=3DfVal UpdNavPane() } } function ToggleOtlText() { gOtlTxtExp=3D!gOtlTxtExp UpdOtlPane() } function ClearMedia() { // Clear any sounds playing before launching another browser window. Other= wise, // in fullscreen mode, you'll continue to hear the sound in the frames mod= e. if (PPTSld.pptSound) PPTSld.pptSound.loop =3D 0; } function FullScreen() {=20 if ( PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) PPTSld.document.body.pause(); ClearMedia(); var href =3D ( document.location.protocol =3D=3D 'mhtml:') ? FULLSCR_HREF = : FULLSCR_HREF+"#"+GetHrefObj(gCurSld).mSldHref; if(PPTNav.event.ctrlKey) { var w =3D (window.screen.availWidth * 1.0) / 2.0 var h =3D w * (PPTSld.g_origH * 1.0) / PPTSld.g_origW win =3D window.open( MHTMLPrefix+href,null,"toolbar=3D0,resizable=3D1,top= =3D0,left=3D0," + "width=3D"+ w + ",height=3D" + h ); if( win.document.body && PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) win.document.body.PPTSldFrameset=3Dwindow; } else { win =3D window.open( MHTMLPrefix+href,null,"fullscreen=3Dyes" ); if( win.document.body && PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) win.document.body.PPTSldFrameset=3Dwindow; } } function ToggleVNarration() { rObj=3DPPTSld.document.all("NSPlay") if( rObj && !PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) { if( (rObj.playState =3D=3D 1)||(rObj.playState =3D=3D 0) ) rObj.Play() else if( rObj.playState =3D=3D 2 ) rObj.Pause() else return; } else if( PPTSld.g_animUseRuntime ) { narObj =3D PPTSld.document.all("narrationID") if( narObj ) narObj.togglePause() } } function GetCurSldNum() { =20 obj=3DGetHrefObj(gCurSld) if( obj.mOrigVis =3D=3D 1 ) return obj.mSldIdx else =20 return gCurSld } function GetNumSlds() { =20 if( GetHrefObj(gCurSld).mOrigVis =3D=3D 1 ) return GetSldList().mNumVisSlds; else return GetSldList().mList.length } function GetSldNum( href ) { for(ii=3D0; ii 1 ) PopSldList(); else if( !IsFramesMode() ) { if( gLoopCont ) GoToFirst() else EndShow() } } function GoToPrevSld() { ii=3DgCurSld-1 if( ii > 0 ) { obj=3DGetHrefObj(ii) while ( obj && ( obj.mVis =3D=3D 0 ) && ( ii>0 ) ) obj=3DGetHrefObj(--ii) if( ii =3D=3D 0 ) ii=3D1 GoToSldNum(ii) } } function GoToFirst(){ GoToSld( GetHrefObj(1).mSldHref ) } function GoToLast() { ii=3DGetSldList().mList.length if( ii !=3D gCurSld ) GoToSld( GetHrefObj(ii).mSldHref ) } function GoToSldNum( num ) { if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue obj =3D GetHrefObj( num ) obj.mVis=3D1 gPrevSld=3DgCurSld gCurSld =3D num; PPTSld.location.replace(MHTMLPrefix+obj.mSldHref) if( IsFramesMode() ) { UpdNavPane(); UpdOtlPane(); UpdNtsPane() } } function GoToSld( href ) { if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue GetHrefObj( GetSldNum(href) ).mVis=3D1 PPTSld.location.replace(MHTMLPrefix+href) } function SldUpdated( id ) { if( id =3D=3D GetHrefObj(gCurSld).mSldHref ) return gPrevSld=3DgCurSld gCurSld=3DGetSldNum(id) if( IsFramesMode() ) { UpdNavPane(); UpdOtlPane(); UpdNtsPane() } } function PrevSldViewed(){ GoToSld( GetHrefObj(gPrevSld).mSldHref ) } function HasPrevSld() { return ( gIsEndShow || ( gCurSld !=3D 1 && GetHrefO= bj( gCurSld-1 ).mVis =3D=3D 1 )||( GetCurSldNum() > 1 ) ) } function HasNextSld() { return (GetCurSldNum() !=3D GetNumSlds()) } function CloseWindow() { if( HideMenu() ) return; =09 var event =3D PPTSld.event; if( !IsFramesMode() && event && (event.keyCode=3D=3D27 || event.keyCode=3D= =3D32 || event.type=3D=3D"click" ) ) window.close( self ); CatchNumKeys( self, event ); } function Unload() { gIsEndShow=3D0; } function SetupEndShow() { gIsEndShow=3D1; PPTSld.document.body.scroll=3D"no"; PPTSld.document.onkeypress=3DCloseWindow; PPTSld.document.onclick=3DCloseWindow; PPTSld.document.oncontextmenu=3D_CM; } function EndShow() { if( IsFramesMode() ) return if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue doc=3DPPTSld.document var dir =3D doc.body.dir if( dir !=3D "rtl" ) dir =3D "ltr"; doc.open() doc.writeln('

' + ENDSHOW_MESG + '
') doc.close() } function SetSldVisited(){ GetSldList().mList[gCurSld-1].mVisited=3Dtrue } function IsSldVisited(){ return GetSldList().mList[gCurSld-1].mVisited } function hrefList( sldHref, visible, advDelay, advClk ) { this.mSldHref=3D this.mNtsHref =3D sldHref this.mOrigVis=3D this.mVis =3D visible this.mVisited=3D false this.mAdvDelay=3D advDelay this.mAdvOnClk=3D advClk } function SldList(arr,curSld,fEnd) { this.mCurSld =3D curSld; this.mList =3D new Array(); var idx =3D 1; for(ii=3D0;ii 0) { PushSldList(sldList,fEnd); gCurSld =3D 1; } else if( PPTSld.event ) PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue } function PushSldList(arr,fEnd) { var ii =3D gSldStack.length; gSldStack[ii] =3D new SldList(arr,gCurSld,fEnd); GoToSld( gSldStack[ii].mList[0].mSldHref ); } function PopSldList() { if (gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1].fEndShow) EndShow() else { gCurSld =3D gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1].mCurSld; gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1] =3D null; gSldStack.length--; var sldList =3D gSldStack[gSldStack.length-1]; GoToSld( sldList.mList[gCurSld - 1].mSldHref ); } } var custShowList=3Dnew Array(); /********************************************* Navigation button implementation There are 2 types of buttons: ImgBtn, TxtBtn implemented as function objects. They share a similiar interface so the event handlers can call SetActive, for example, on a button=20 object without needing to know exactly=20 what type of button it is. **********************************************/ //---------------------------------- function ImgBtn( oId,bId,w,action ) //---------------------------------- { var t=3Dthis t.Perform =3D _IBP t.SetActive =3D _IBSetA t.SetInactive=3D _IBSetI t.SetPressed =3D _IBSetP t.SetDisabled=3D _IBSetD t.Enabled =3D _IBSetE t.ChangeIcon =3D null t.UserAction =3D action t.ChgState =3D _IBUI t.mObjId =3D oId t.mBorderId=3D bId t.mWidth =3D w t.mIsOn =3D t.mCurState =3D 0 } function _IBSetA() { if( this.mIsOn ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gHiliteClr,gShadowClr,2 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0 } } function _IBSetI() { if( this.mIsOn ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,1 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0=20 } } function _IBSetP() { if( this.mIsOn ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gShadowClr,gHiliteClr,2 ) obj.style.posLeft+=3D1; obj.style.posTop+=3D1 } } function _IBSetD() { =20 obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0=20 } function _IBSetE( state ) { var t=3Dthis GetObj( t.mBorderId ).style.visibility=3D"visible" if( state !=3D t.mIsOn ) { t.mIsOn=3Dstate if( state ) t.SetInactive() else t.SetDisabled() } } function _IBP() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn ) { if( t.UserAction !=3D null ) t.UserAction() if( t.ChangeIcon ) { obj=3DGetObj(t.mObjId) if( t.ChangeIcon() ) obj.style.posLeft=3Dobj.style.posLeft+(t.mCurState-4)*t.mWidth else obj.style.posLeft=3Dobj.style.posLeft+(t.mCurState-0)*t.mWidth } t.SetActive() } =20 } function _IBUI( clr1,clr2,nextState ) { var t=3Dthis SetBorder( GetObj( t.mBorderId ),clr1,clr2 ) obj=3DGetObj( t.mObjId ) obj.style.posLeft=3Dobj.style.posLeft+(t.mCurState-nextState)*t.mWidth-obj= .style.posTop t.mCurState=3DnextState return obj } //----------------------------------------- function TxtBtn( oId,oeId,action,chkState ) //----------------------------------------- { var t=3Dthis t.Perform =3D _TBP t.SetActive =3D _TBSetA t.SetInactive=3D _TBSetI t.SetPressed =3D _TBSetP t.SetDisabled=3D _TBSetD t.SetEnabled =3D _TBSetE t.GetState =3D chkState t.UserAction =3D action t.ChgState =3D _TBUI t.mObjId =3D oId t.m_elementsId=3D oeId t.mIsOn =3D 1 } function _TBSetA() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn && !t.GetState() ) t.ChgState( gHiliteClr,gShadowClr,0,0 ) } function _TBSetI() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn && !t.GetState() ) t.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0,0 ) } function _TBSetP() { if( this.mIsOn ) this.ChgState( gShadowClr,gHiliteClr,1,1 ) } function _TBSetD() { =20 this.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0,0 ) this.mIsOn =3D 0 } function _TBSetE() { var t=3Dthis if( !t.GetState() ) t.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,0,0 ) else t.ChgState( gShadowClr,gHiliteClr,1,1 ) t.mIsOn =3D 1 } function _TBP() { var t=3Dthis if( t.mIsOn ) {=20 if( t.UserAction !=3D null ) t.UserAction() if( !t.GetState ) return if( t.GetState() ) t.SetPressed() else t.SetActive() } =20 } function _TBUI( clr1,clr2,lOffset,tOffset ) { SetBorder( GetObj( this.mObjId ),clr1,clr2 ) Offset( GetObj( this.m_elementsId ),lOffset,tOffset ) } function Offset( obj, top, left ){ obj.style.top=3Dtop; obj.style.left=3Dle= ft } function SetBorder( obj, upperLeft, lowerRight ) { s=3Dobj.style; s.borderStyle =3D "solid" s.borderWidth =3D 1=20 s.borderLeftColor =3D s.borderTopColor =3D upperLeft s.borderBottomColor=3D s.borderRightColor =3D lowerRight } function GetBtnObj(){ return gBtnArr[window.event.srcElement.id] } function BtnOnOver(){ b=3DGetBtnObj(); if( b !=3D null ) b.SetActive() } function BtnOnDown(){ b=3DGetBtnObj(); if( b !=3D null ) b.SetPressed() } function BtnOnOut(){ b=3DGetBtnObj(); if( b !=3D null ) b.SetInactive() } function BtnOnUp() { b=3DGetBtnObj() if( b !=3D null ) b.Perform() else Upd() } function GetNtsState(){ return parent.gNtsOpen } function GetOtlState(){ return parent.gOtlOpen } function GetOtlTxtState(){ return parent.gOtlTxtExp } function NtsBtnSetFlag( fVal ) { s=3Ddocument.all.item( this.m_flagId ).style s.display=3D"none" if( fVal ) s.display=3D"" else s.display=3D"none" } function _BSetA_Border(){ b =3D gBtnArr[this.mObjId]; if( b !=3D null ) b.S= etActive() } function _BSetI_Border(){ b =3D gBtnArr[this.mObjId]; if( b !=3D null ) b.S= etInactive() } function _BSetP_Border(){ b =3D gBtnArr[this.mObjId]; if( b !=3D null ) b.S= etPressed() } function _BSetA_BorderImg() {=20 b =3D gBtnArr[this.mBorderId]=20 if( b !=3D null && this.mIsOn && !b.GetState() ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gHiliteClr,gShadowClr,2 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0 } } function _BSetI_BorderImg() {=20 b =3D gBtnArr[this.mBorderId] if( b !=3D null && this.mIsOn && !b.GetState() ) { obj=3Dthis.ChgState( gFaceClr,gFaceClr,1 ) obj.style.posTop=3D0 } } var gHiliteClr=3D"THREEDHIGHLIGHT",gShadowClr=3D"THREEDSHADOW",gFaceClr=3D"= THREEDFACE" var gBtnArr =3D new Array() gBtnArr["nb_otl"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_otl","nb_otlElem",parent.ToggleOtlPan= e,GetOtlState ) gBtnArr["nb_otlElem"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_otl","nb_otlElem",parent.ToggleOt= lPane,GetOtlState ) gBtnArr["nb_nts"] =3D new ImgBtn( "nb_nts","nb_ntsBorder",10,parent.ToggleN= tsPane ) gBtnArr["nb_nts"].SetActive =3D _BSetA_BorderImg; gBtnArr["nb_nts"].SetInactive =3D _BSetI_BorderImg; gBtnArr["nb_ntsBorder"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_ntsBorder","nb_ntsElem",parent.= ToggleNtsPane,GetNtsState ) gBtnArr["nb_ntsElem"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_ntsBorder","nb_ntsElem",parent.To= ggleNtsPane,GetNtsState ) gBtnArr["nb_prevBorder"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_prev"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_prev","n= b_prevBorder",30,parent.GoToPrevSld ) gBtnArr["nb_nextBorder"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_next"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_next","n= b_nextBorder",30,parent.GoToNextSld ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshw"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_sldshw","nb_sldshwBorder",18,parent= .FullScreen ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshwBorder"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_sldshw","nb_sldshwBorder",pa= rent.FullScreen,null ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshwBorder"].SetActive =3D _BSetA_Border; gBtnArr["nb_sldshwBorder"].SetInactive =3D _BSetI_Border; gBtnArr["nb_sldshwText"] =3D new TxtBtn( "nb_sldshw","nb_sldshwText",parent= .FullScreen,null ) gBtnArr["nb_sldshwText"].SetActive =3D _BSetA_Border; gBtnArr["nb_sldshwText"].SetInactive =3D _BSetI_Border; gBtnArr["nb_voice"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_voiceBorder"] =3D new ImgBtn( "nb_voice= ","nb_voiceBorder",18,parent.ToggleVNarration ) gBtnArr["nb_otlTxtBorder"] =3D gBtnArr["nb_otlTxt"]=3D new ImgBtn( "nb_otlT= xt","nb_otlTxtBorder",23,parent.ToggleOtlText ) gBtnArr["nb_ntsBorder"].m_flagId=3D "nb_nts" gBtnArr["nb_ntsBorder"].SetFlag =3D NtsBtnSetFlag gBtnArr["nb_otlTxt"].ChangeIcon=3D GetOtlTxtState /********************************************* Context menu implementation _CM() is the function that's hooked up to the oncontextmenu event. Once we're asked to show the menu, we first build it by creating DIVs on-the-fly. Then we position it=20 within the screen area so it doesn't get clipped. Creating the DIVs using createElement() means we don't have to write out any extra HTML into the slide HTML files. **********************************************/ var sNext=3D"Next",sPrev=3D"Previous",sEnd=3D"End Show",sFont=3D"Arial",sAr= row=3D"Arrow",sFreeform=3D"Freeform",sRect=3D"Rectangle",sOval=3D"Oval" function ShowMenu() { BuildMenu(); var doc=3DPPTSld.document.body,x=3DPPTSld.event.clientX+doc.scrollLeft,y= =3DPPTSld.event.clientY+doc.scrollTop m =3D PPTSld.document.all.item("ctxtmenu") m.style.pixelLeft=3Dx if( (x+m.scrollWidth > doc.clientWidth)&&(x-m.scrollWidth > 0) ) m.style.pixelLeft=3Dx-m.scrollWidth m.style.pixelTop=3Dy if( (y+m.scrollHeight > doc.clientHeight)&&(y-m.scrollHeight > 0) ) m.style.pixelTop=3Dy-m.scrollHeight m.style.display=3D"" } function _CM() { if( !parent.IsFullScrMode() ) return; if(!PPTSld.event.ctrlKey) { ShowMenu() return false } else HideMenu() } function BuildMenu() { if( PPTSld.document.all.item("ctxtmenu") ) return var mObj=3DCreateItem( PPTSld.document.body ) mObj.id=3D"ctxtmenu" mObj.style.visibility=3D"hidden" var s=3DmObj.style s.position=3D"absolute" s.cursor=3D"default" s.width=3D"120px" SetCMBorder(mObj,"menu","black") var iObj=3DCreateItem( mObj ) SetCMBorder( iObj, "threedhighlight","threedshadow" ) iObj.style.padding=3D2 CreateMenuItem( iObj,sNext,M_GoNextSld,M_True ) CreateMenuItem( iObj,sPrev,M_GoPrevSld,M_HasPrevSld ) =09 CreateSeparator( iObj ) CreateMenuItem( iObj,sEnd,M_End,M_True ) mObj.style.visibility=3D"visible" } function Cancel() { window.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue; window.event.returnVa= lue=3Dfalse } function Highlight() { ChangeClr("activecaption","threedhighlight") } function Deselect() { ChangeClr("threedface","menutext") } function Perform() { e=3DPPTSld.event.srcElement if( e.type=3D=3D"menuitem" && e.IsActive() ) e.Action() else PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue } function ChangeClr( bg,clr ) { e=3DPPTSld.event.srcElement if( e.type=3D=3D"menuitem" && e.IsActive() ) { e.style.backgroundColor=3Dbg e.style.color=3Dclr } } function M_HasPrevSld() { return( parent.HasPrevSld() ) } function M_GoNextSld() { if( gIsEndShow ) M_End(); else GoToNextSld() } function M_GoPrevSld() { if( gIsEndShow ) { gIsEndShow=3D0; history.back();= PPTSld.event.cancelBubble=3Dtrue; } else GoToPrevSld() } function M_True() { return true } function M_End() { window.close( self ) } function CreateMenuItem( node,text,action,eval ) { var e=3DCreateItem( node ) e.type=3D"menuitem" e.Action=3Daction e.IsActive=3Deval e.innerHTML=3Dtext if( !e.IsActive() ) e.style.color=3D"threedshadow" e.onclick=3DPerform e.onmouseover=3DHighlight e.onmouseout=3DDeselect s=3De.style; 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No= tes

Slide Show

Outline

1

Cognitive Models= of SLA   Sociolinguistic Approaches to SLA=

Looking at interlanguage processes

Interlanguage in context

2

Outline

Information Processing

Competition Model

Connectioist Model

The Monitor Model

Variation

3

1. Information processing in SLA

Key assumptions:

> Humans are limited-capacity processors.

- capacity is a function = of organization: quality and quantity

> SLA is a cognitive skill.

- can be broken down into subskills.

4

Restructuring

Restructuring is the process by which task components are coordinate= d, integrated, or reorganized into new units. Procedures involving old components are replaced by more efficient procedures involving new components.

>> Restructuring at= tempts to account for transitions in skill levels.

5

Characteristics = of the input-matching approach

Language is learned

Associative mechanisms of learning

Language knowledge is graded

Learning outcomes are a probabilistic function of input type and quantity

(IOW: The more you are exposed to a form the more likely you are to learn it.)

The unity of processing and learning

6

Associative lear= ning is:

"the ability of an organism to adapt its behaviour as a result = of acquiring information about associations or contingencies that exist between events in its environment".

There are two types of associative learning:

Causal associations link elements in a temporal sequence, in which o= ne cue in the environment is associated with another cue that immediate= ly follows.

Structural associations link features of a single entity. The set of individual links are perceived as a single configuration.

7

2. Competition M= odel

   “Speakers must have a= way to determine relationships among elements in a sentence.”

In processing meaning we use these cues:

1) Syntax

Word order (SVO)

Morphology (case of nouns, subject-verb agreement)

2) Semantics

Human

Animate

8

The Competition = Model

In some cases semantic and syntactic cues converge.

The cows eat the grass.

In other cases semantic and syntactic cues conflict.

The chair asked the dog t= o go.

The interpretation we choose is based on competition among cues.

9

Sentence Interpr= etation Task: Assigning the actor

        The boy threw= the rock.

NP₁ NP₂

Word order cue: Preverbal = noun >>> Subject (English SVO)

Knowledge of meaning of lexical items.

Animacy cue: Animate subjects “throw”

Contrastive stress: Agent marked by stress.

10

Which noun phra= se is the agent/subject of the sentence?

1. The rock the scissor kissed.

2. Ate the thing the man.

3. The horse hit the tree.

4. The house the doctor met.

5. Saw the boy the girl.

6. The boat the giraffe steered.

7. The husband the wife visited.

8. Played the time the room.

11

3. Connectionis= t Models

a.k.a. neural networks, neural computing, parallel distributed processing

Model Overview: Units and connections

Network of interconnected exemplars and patterns.

12

4. The Monitor = Model

The Monitor Model is a general term for an approach to second langua= ge learning proposed by S. Krashen. The Monitor Model consists of five interrelated constructs, which the author labels hypotheses:

   1. The acquisition/lear= ning hypothesis.

2. The monitor hypothesis.

3. The natural order hypothesis .

4. The input hypothesis.

5. The affective filter hypothesis.

13

1.The acquisition/learning hypothesis

Adults have two independent ways of developing competence in SL:

(1) acquisition – unconscious process similar to Chomsky's langua= ge acquisition device (LAD) that is, identical to the way children dev= elop ability in their first language.

(2) learning - conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing, b= eing aware, and being able to articulate the rules.

14

1. The acquisition/learning hypothesis

   The acquisition/learning hypothesis: two key claims

1. Adults can access same LAD as children

2. Learning and acquisition are separate processes: learning cannot become acquisition

Learning > practice > acquisition seems a plausible way to describe the way we learn. However, there three reasons why the learning and acquisition are separate:

i. acquisition can occur without learning

i.e. language can be picked up

ii. learning may not become acquisition e.g. fossilisation

iii. impossible to know all the rules

15

2. The Monitor Hypothesis

Learning serves as a monitor on output that is initiated by the 'acquired' system. At best it provides a 'fine-tuning' of production= .

                 �= �        Learned Competence (the Monitor)

Acquired                    �= �                          output

Competence

Implication for teaching: focus on communication, not rule-learning.=

16

2. The Monitor Hypothesis:
Conditions for use

The Monitor is only used when three conditions are met:

i. Enough time is available

ii. There is a focus on form

iii. There is knowledge of rule

Monitor is only available in production

The Monitor is used to explain individual differences and adult/child differences; Children do not use Monitor, as it appears at onset of formal operations

17

3. The Natural = Order Hypothesis

L2 learners acquire grammatical structure in a predictable order.

Originally one natural order was posited but given the difficulty in assessing comparability of structures, multiple streams of developme= nt are assumed.

18

3 Acquisition H= ierarchy (Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982)

GROUP I

CASE (I/me) WORD ORDER = (simple sentences)

            = GROUP II

SINGULAR COPULA (‘s/i= s) SINGULAR AUXILIARY (‘s/is)
                 = PLURAL AUX (are) PROGRESSIVE (-ing)

                    =                                  GROUP III

PAST IRREGULAR (went) CONDITIONAL AUX (would)

                 = POSSESSIVE (‘s) LONG PLURAL (-es)

                 =                       3rd PERSON SINGULAR (-s)

          GROUP IV

PERFECT AUX (have) PAST PARTICIPLE (-en)

19

4. The Input Hy= pothesis

   Consists of four parts = and assumes NOH is correct.

i. IH concerns acquisition= , not learning

ii. Acquisition occurs by understanding language that contains struc= ture just beyond current level of competence "i+1". This is done through context or extralinguistic information, i.e. acquisition is caused by understanding.

iii. When input is understood and there is enough of it, i + 1 will = be provided automatically (simplified input important).

iv. Production ability emerges, it is not taught directly (important implications for teaching).

20

4.1 Comprehensi= ble Input

1. CI is receptive language that is slightly ahead of the learner’s current state of grammatical knowledge, referred to as “i + 1”.<= /li>

2. Speech emerges from competence built from comprehensible input.

3. Grammar knowledge is automatically provided by input that is both comprehensible and of sufficient quantity.

21

4.2 Comprehensi= ble Input: Where does it come from? (1)

“foreigner talk” ( Ferguson, 1975)

NS adjustment are generally well-formed but modified.

* slower, more careful pronunciation, stress on key words

* shorter grammar structures

* grammatical relations made explicit

* less syntactic or propositional complexity

* restricted vocabulary size

* fewer pro forms

22

4.2 Comprehensi= ble Input: Where does it come from? (2)

Interactional adjustments to NNSs

content: narrower range of topics, here and now orientation

interactional structure: acceptance of topic shifts, confirmation and clarification checks.

paraphrase: approximation and circumlocution

avoidance: topic avoidance.

23

5. The Affectiv= e Filter Hypothesis

There is an affective filter that subconsciously screens incoming language based on learner's motives, needs, attitudes and emotional states. The AF is outside the LAD proper.

AF incorporates affective variables into the model.

             Fil= ter

                 �= �      Language

   Input                    �= � Acquisition                    �= � Acquired Competence

                 �= �                Device

24

Affective Filter Hypothesis: Characteristics

AF incorporates affective variables into the model.

Main source of individual differences in L2 learning, determining:

which language models will be attended to;

which part of the language will be attended to;

when the learner will stop trying to learn;

and how fast the learner will learn.

25

Current status = of the Monitor Model

The Monitor Model has largely been rejected as a testable theory of = SLA, however, it has had a major impact on SLA research. The following qu= ote captures the prevailing view shared by most SLA researchers today:
“…It remains true none the less that Krashen’s ideas have been= highly influential in shaping many research agendas and projects, and in do= ing so, considerably advancing our understanding of SLA. Krashen’s main overall weakness was the presentation of what were just hypotheses t= hat remained to be tested, as a comprehensive model that had empirical reality. He then used his hypotheses prematurely as a basis for draw= ing pedagogical conclusions.”

Mitchell, R. & Myles, S. (1998). Second language learning theor= ies. P. 39. London: Arnold.

26

5. Variation

The notion of an interlanguage assumes that L2 development is not arbitrary. However, at the same time, it is clear that there is a gr= eat deal of variability in the way people learn a second language. People learn at different rates, follow different orders and ultimately arr= ive at different places along the curve of L2 development.

27

The variationist perspective

“ The basic premise of sociolinguistic-based SLA research is that = second language data do not represent a static phenomenon, even at a single point in time. Many external variables (such as the specific task required of a learner, social status of the interlocutor, gender differences, and so forth) affect learner production.”

                 �= �      (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 222)

28

"Language = learning as the development..."

Language learning as the development of function-form mappings (e.g., the Competition Model)

subject & verb {fo= rm}

Daddy hit

agent & action {fu= nction}

29

The way in which variability is accounted for in SLA theory depends on how L2 'competence'= is defined.

Linguistic competence    = vs. Communicative competence

*Chomsky          = *Labov

*structuralist          <= /span>*functionalist

*competence/performance                   *competence to perform

*all V non-systematic       =                    *V essen= tial part of theory

*discrete, invariant rules

30

Communicative competence

Knowledge that enables learners to comprehend and produce the L2.

    linguistic               pragmatic

31

What is the rol= e of social and cultural context in SLA theory?

What is the domain of SLA theory or, in other words, what determines= L2 proficiency?

Abstract linguistic knowledge?

             (li= nguistically or cognitively based)

Social and cultural context?

------=_NextPart_01C729B6.0B6566D0 Content-Location: file:///C:/ED78D5C1/CognitiveModelstoSLA_files/filelist.xml Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Type: text/xml; charset="utf-8" ------=_NextPart_01C729B6.0B6566D0--

1	Cognitive Models= of SLA Sociolinguistic Approaches to SLA= Looking at interlanguage processes Interlanguage in context
2	Outline Information Processing Competition Model Connectioist Model The Monitor Model Variation
3	1. Information processing in SLA Key assumptions: > Humans are limited-capacity processors. - capacity is a function = of organization: quality and quantity > SLA is a cognitive skill. - can be broken down into subskills.
4	Restructuring Restructuring is the process by which task components are coordinate= d, integrated, or reorganized into new units. Procedures involving old components are replaced by more efficient procedures involving new components. >> Restructuring at= tempts to account for transitions in skill levels.
5	Characteristics = of the input-matching approach Language is learned Associative mechanisms of learning Language knowledge is graded Learning outcomes are a probabilistic function of input type and quantity (IOW: The more you are exposed to a form the more likely you are to learn it.) The unity of processing and learning
6	Associative lear= ning is: "the ability of an organism to adapt its behaviour as a result = of acquiring information about associations or contingencies that exist between events in its environment". There are two types of associative learning: Causal associations link elements in a temporal sequence, in which o= ne cue in the environment is associated with another cue that immediate= ly follows. Structural associations link features of a single entity. The set of individual links are perceived as a single configuration.
7	2. Competition M= odel “Speakers must have a= way to determine relationships among elements in a sentence.” In processing meaning we use these cues: 1) Syntax Word order (SVO) Morphology (case of nouns, subject-verb agreement) 2) Semantics Human Animate
8	The Competition = Model In some cases semantic and syntactic cues converge. The cows eat the grass. In other cases semantic and syntactic cues conflict. The chair asked the dog t= o go. The interpretation we choose is based on competition among cues.
9	Sentence Interpr= etation Task: Assigning the actor The boy threw= the rock. NP₁ NP₂ Word order cue: Preverbal = noun >>> Subject (English SVO) Knowledge of meaning of lexical items. Animacy cue: Animate subjects “throw” Contrastive stress: Agent marked by stress.
10	Which noun phra= se is the agent/subject of the sentence? 1. The rock the scissor kissed. 2. Ate the thing the man. 3. The horse hit the tree. 4. The house the doctor met. 5. Saw the boy the girl. 6. The boat the giraffe steered. 7. The husband the wife visited. 8. Played the time the room.
11	3. Connectionis= t Models a.k.a. neural networks, neural computing, parallel distributed processing Model Overview: Units and connections Network of interconnected exemplars and patterns.
12	4. The Monitor = Model The Monitor Model is a general term for an approach to second langua= ge learning proposed by S. Krashen. The Monitor Model consists of five interrelated constructs, which the author labels hypotheses: 1. The acquisition/lear= ning hypothesis. 2. The monitor hypothesis. 3. The natural order hypothesis . 4. The input hypothesis. 5. The affective filter hypothesis.
13	1.The acquisition/learning hypothesis Adults have two independent ways of developing competence in SL: (1) acquisition – unconscious process similar to Chomsky's langua= ge acquisition device (LAD) that is, identical to the way children dev= elop ability in their first language. (2) learning - conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing, b= eing aware, and being able to articulate the rules.
14	1. The acquisition/learning hypothesis The acquisition/learning hypothesis: two key claims 1. Adults can access same LAD as children 2. Learning and acquisition are separate processes: learning cannot become acquisition Learning > practice > acquisition seems a plausible way to describe the way we learn. However, there three reasons why the learning and acquisition are separate: i. acquisition can occur without learning i.e. language can be picked up ii. learning may not become acquisition e.g. fossilisation iii. impossible to know all the rules
15	2. The Monitor Hypothesis Learning serves as a monitor on output that is initiated by the 'acquired' system. At best it provides a 'fine-tuning' of production= . �= � Learned Competence (the Monitor) Acquired �= � output Competence Implication for teaching: focus on communication, not rule-learning.=
16	2. The Monitor Hypothesis: Conditions for use The Monitor is only used when three conditions are met: i. Enough time is available ii. There is a focus on form iii. There is knowledge of rule Monitor is only available in production The Monitor is used to explain individual differences and adult/child differences; Children do not use Monitor, as it appears at onset of formal operations
17	3. The Natural = Order Hypothesis L2 learners acquire grammatical structure in a predictable order. Originally one natural order was posited but given the difficulty in assessing comparability of structures, multiple streams of developme= nt are assumed.
18	3 Acquisition H= ierarchy (Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982) GROUP I CASE (I/me) WORD ORDER = (simple sentences) = GROUP II SINGULAR COPULA (‘s/i= s) SINGULAR AUXILIARY (‘s/is) = PLURAL AUX (are) PROGRESSIVE (-ing) = GROUP III PAST IRREGULAR (went) CONDITIONAL AUX (would) = POSSESSIVE (‘s) LONG PLURAL (-es) = 3rd PERSON SINGULAR (-s) GROUP IV PERFECT AUX (have) PAST PARTICIPLE (-en)
19	4. The Input Hy= pothesis Consists of four parts = and assumes NOH is correct. i. IH concerns acquisition= , not learning ii. Acquisition occurs by understanding language that contains struc= ture just beyond current level of competence "i+1". This is done through context or extralinguistic information, i.e. acquisition is caused by understanding. iii. When input is understood and there is enough of it, i + 1 will = be provided automatically (simplified input important). iv. Production ability emerges, it is not taught directly (important implications for teaching).
20	4.1 Comprehensi= ble Input 1. CI is receptive language that is slightly ahead of the learner’s current state of grammatical knowledge, referred to as “i + 1”.<= /li> 2. Speech emerges from competence built from comprehensible input. 3. Grammar knowledge is automatically provided by input that is both comprehensible and of sufficient quantity.
21	4.2 Comprehensi= ble Input: Where does it come from? (1) “foreigner talk” ( Ferguson, 1975) NS adjustment are generally well-formed but modified. * slower, more careful pronunciation, stress on key words * shorter grammar structures * grammatical relations made explicit * less syntactic or propositional complexity * restricted vocabulary size * fewer pro forms
22	4.2 Comprehensi= ble Input: Where does it come from? (2) Interactional adjustments to NNSs content: narrower range of topics, here and now orientation interactional structure: acceptance of topic shifts, confirmation and clarification checks. paraphrase: approximation and circumlocution avoidance: topic avoidance.
23	5. The Affectiv= e Filter Hypothesis There is an affective filter that subconsciously screens incoming language based on learner's motives, needs, attitudes and emotional states. The AF is outside the LAD proper. AF incorporates affective variables into the model. Fil= ter �= � Language Input �= � Acquisition �= � Acquired Competence �= � Device
24	Affective Filter Hypothesis: Characteristics AF incorporates affective variables into the model. Main source of individual differences in L2 learning, determining: which language models will be attended to; which part of the language will be attended to; when the learner will stop trying to learn; and how fast the learner will learn.
25	Current status = of the Monitor Model The Monitor Model has largely been rejected as a testable theory of = SLA, however, it has had a major impact on SLA research. The following qu= ote captures the prevailing view shared by most SLA researchers today: “…It remains true none the less that Krashen’s ideas have been= highly influential in shaping many research agendas and projects, and in do= ing so, considerably advancing our understanding of SLA. Krashen’s main overall weakness was the presentation of what were just hypotheses t= hat remained to be tested, as a comprehensive model that had empirical reality. He then used his hypotheses prematurely as a basis for draw= ing pedagogical conclusions.” Mitchell, R. & Myles, S. (1998). Second language learning theor= ies. P. 39. London: Arnold.
26	5. Variation The notion of an interlanguage assumes that L2 development is not arbitrary. However, at the same time, it is clear that there is a gr= eat deal of variability in the way people learn a second language. People learn at different rates, follow different orders and ultimately arr= ive at different places along the curve of L2 development.
27	The variationist perspective “ The basic premise of sociolinguistic-based SLA research is that = second language data do not represent a static phenomenon, even at a single point in time. Many external variables (such as the specific task required of a learner, social status of the interlocutor, gender differences, and so forth) affect learner production.” �= � (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 222)
28	"Language = learning as the development..." Language learning as the development of function-form mappings (e.g., the Competition Model) subject & verb {fo= rm} Daddy hit agent & action {fu= nction}
29	The way in which variability is accounted for in SLA theory depends on how L2 'competence'= is defined. Linguistic competence = vs. Communicative competence Chomsky = Labov structuralist <= /span>functionalist competence/performance competence to perform all V non-systematic = V essen= tial part of theory *discrete, invariant rules
30	Communicative competence Knowledge that enables learners to comprehend and produce the L2. linguistic pragmatic
31	What is the rol= e of social and cultural context in SLA theory? What is the domain of SLA theory or, in other words, what determines= L2 proficiency? Abstract linguistic knowledge? (li= nguistically or cognitively based) Social and cultural context?